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kshery-j · 1 year ago

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Understanding the intricacies of motor construction

Let's embark on an exciting journey into the world of FPV drone motors! In this comprehensive guide, we will delve deep into the intricacies of motor construction, design features, and the various factors that can influence the performance and efficiency of these essential components. Armed with this knowledge, you'll be well-equipped to select the perfect motor for your upcoming drone build.

Brushless vs. Brushed Motors

In the realm of RC (remote control) devices, two primary types of motors exist: brushless and brushed motors. For our purposes, we will exclusively focus on brushless motors, which are the preferred choice for most FPV drones. Brushless motors are renowned for their durability and power, making them the top choice in the FPV community, while brushed motors are commonly found in toy-grade drones due to their cost-effectiveness.

Estimating Drone Weight and Frame Size

When contemplating the total weight of your FPV drone, it's crucial to account for all its components, from the frame and flight controller (FC) to the electronic speed controllers (ESCs), motors, propellers, receiver (RX), video transmitter (VTX), antenna, LiPo battery, GoPro camera, and more. While precision isn't mandatory, a reasonably accurate weight estimate is essential. It's better to overestimate the weight to ensure your drone has the power it needs rather than to underpower it, which can lead to difficulties during takeoff.

Additionally, determining your frame size is vital, as it dictates the maximum propeller size your drone can accommodate.

Determining Thrust Requirements

To calculate the minimum thrust necessary for your specific motor and propeller combination, you must consider the estimated total weight of your drone. A rule of thumb dictates that the combined maximum thrust generated by all the motors should be at least twice the total weight of your quadcopter. Insufficient thrust can result in sluggish control response and difficulties taking off.

For instance, if your drone weighs 1kg, the total thrust produced by all motors at 100% throttle should be a minimum of 2kg, with each motor generating 500g of thrust for a quadcopter. Of course, having excess thrust available is always beneficial.

For racing drones, the thrust-to-weight ratio, or power-to-weight ratio, should be significantly higher than the example mentioned above. Ratios of 10:1 or even 14:1 are not uncommon. In acrobatic and freestyle flying, it is advisable to maintain a thrust-to-weight ratio of at least 5:1.

A higher thrust-to-weight ratio grants a quadcopter greater agility and acceleration but can also make it more challenging to control, especially for novice pilots. Even slight throttle adjustments can cause the drone to shoot upwards with great force. A pilot's skill and experience play a substantial role in managing this power.

Even if you plan to use your drone for slow and stable aerial photography, it's advisable to aim for a thrust-to-weight ratio higher than 3:1 or even 4:1. This not only enhances control but also allows for the addition of extra payload.

Connecting a Brushless Motor

To operate a brushless motor, you'll need an electronic speed controller (ESC). Unlike brushed motors, which have only two wires, brushless motors are equipped with three wires. These wires can be connected to the ESC in any order. To reverse the motor's rotation direction, simply swap any two of the three wires.

Motor Size Explained

In the world of RC, brushless motor size is typically denoted by a four-digit number, following the AABB format:

The "AA" represents the stator width or diameter.

The "BB" represents the stator height, both measured in millimeters.

The stator serves as the stationary part of the motor, featuring coils of copper wire, which are coated with enamel to prevent short-circuiting as they are wound into multiple loops. When an electrical current flows through these stator coils, it generates a magnetic field that interacts with the permanent magnets on the rotor, resulting in rotation.

The motor's key components include:

Motor Stator: This stationary element of the motor consists of multiple metal coils. The coil wire is coated in enamel to prevent short-circuiting as it's wound into numerous loops. When an electrical current passes through the stator coils, it generates a magnetic field that interacts with the permanent magnets on the rotor, leading to rotation.

Magnets: Permanent magnets create a fixed magnetic field within the motor. In FPV motors, these magnets are attached to the interior of the motor bell using epoxy.

Motor Bell: The motor bell serves as a protective casing for the motor's magnets and windings. Typically constructed from lightweight materials like aluminum, some motor bells are designed with fan-like structures to enhance airflow over the motor windings for improved cooling during operation.

Motor Shaft: The motor shaft, connected to the motor bell, is the component responsible for transferring the torque generated by the motor to the propeller.

Increasing either the stator width or height results in greater stator volume, larger permanent magnets, and more extensive electromagnetic stator coils. This, in turn, enhances the motor's overall torque, enabling it to spin larger, heavier propellers at faster speeds and generate greater thrust. However, larger stators are heavier and less responsive.

KV (Revolutions per Minute per Volt)

The term "KV" indicates the number of revolutions per minute (rpm) a motor can achieve when 1V (one volt) is applied with no load, such as a propeller, connected to the motor. For example, a 2300KV motor, powered by a 3S LiPo battery (12.6V), will spin at approximately 28,980 RPM without propellers mounted (2300 x 12.6). KV is usually a rough estimation specified by the motor manufacturer.

Once a propeller is attached to the motor, the RPM significantly decreases due to air resistance. Higher KV motors tend to spin propellers faster, generating increased thrust and power (while also drawing more current). Larger props are typically paired with low KV motors, whereas smaller, lighter props work better with high KV motors.

It's important to note that if a high KV motor is paired with an excessively large propeller, the motor will attempt to spin it as quickly as it would with a smaller prop. This places a higher demand on torque, resulting in increased current draw and heat generation. Overheating can lead to motor damage, as the enamel coating on the coil wires may melt, causing electrical shorts within the motor. Consequently, a higher KV motor is likely to run hotter than a lower KV motor of the same size.

KV also influences the current and voltage limits of a motor. Higher KV motors feature shorter windings with lower resistance, reducing their maximum voltage rating and increasing the current draw when combined with a propeller. However, the motor's product page typically provides information on the allowable voltage and maximum current.

With this comprehensive guide, you now possess a thorough understanding of FPV drone motors, from the choice between brushless and brushed motors to estimating drone weight, determining thrust requirements, connecting brushless motors, and deciphering motor size and KV ratings. Armed with this knowledge, you'll be better prepared to select the perfect motor for your next FPV drone build. Happy flying!

#drone #fpv #fpvfreestyle #fpvracing #motor #brush motor #brushless motor

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busbarmachine001 · 1 year ago

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Portable parent row processing machine manufacturer (what is the price of the Copper row band bending machine in Inner Mongolia)

Copper resistance to low mechanical strength high -mechanical strength is good for contact connection. It is an excellent conductor but my country is not much storage and more expensive. Essence 62%of the aluminum conductivity is copper, and the weight of the aluminum parent line of the same current of the same current is calculated by the weight of the same length. In addition, the amount of aluminum parental line due to large section area caused by large section area The amount of aluminum parent line that transmits the same current is about 44%of the copper bus.

Starting current increases as the braking current increases. Through the correct fixed value, the actual start -up current of the relay can be greater than the corresponding imbalance current under the action of any large short -circuit current of any size. The longitudinal protection of the transformer can reliably avoid the unbalanced current when the transformer is short -circuit. Portable parent processing machine manufacturer

The coil skeleton, coil winding, coil and isolation layer, and the outermost layer of the coil shall be padded with a polymer film and yellow wax silk according to the drawings. When the drawing is not stipulated, the coil layer cushion 0.05 phone paper or yellow wax silk layer, the coil winding group, the coil and the isolation layer are all the two layers of the phone paper or the yellow wax silk, the outer layer of the coil is yellow wax and silk thin film Three layers.

The bronze row processing machine of the portable busbar bending machine is generally composed of three industrial stations: punching, bending and cutting. The hydraulic driver is used to control the control of each process by PLC. Bending and shearing processes are high -efficiency small machine tools for large quantities of machining mothers in the electrical industry. As one of the three major stations, the scissors station, its function is to cut off the copper row of 20 to 160mm and 3 to 15mm thick and ensure the smoothness of the incision and the vertical of the section. The focus and difficulty in design.

Once a failure during operation, please turn off the total power switch of the device immediately, that is, the air switch is placed in the "OFF" state. And timely contact with Shandong Dalin CNC.

Food safety problem is an eternal topic. With the emergence of many casual foods, many people are boring time. Behind these delicious casual foods, there are many additives that do not meet national standards and are harmful to the human body. While paying attention to food safety, you should also pay attention to the safety of the equipment you are in contact with. When purchasing the homeline processor, you must choose the product of the regular manufacturer. The quality of the machine is strictly controlled. Portable parent processing machine manufacturer

The role and influence of sales staff are not underestimated, because it largely affects the sales volume of enterprise products and is related to the future development of the enterprise. Essence Enterprises have hired professional technical lecturers to carry out lectures, improve their professional skills through technical training, improve the enthusiasm of sales employees through more reward and punishment mechanisms, and improve sales employees' business levels through learning for further studies.

#busbar bending machine

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absurdthirst · 5 years ago

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Can you do the prompt “I didn’t believe you cared.” With Ezra pretty please 🥺🥰

***ANGST!!!!

Mistaken

She held the railgun in her hands, staring down the newcomer that had turned the tables on them. She didn’t bother to turn to look at the little girl that had a thrower trained on all of them, concentrating on the one that managed to get Ezra’s gun off of him.

She had told him that they should just leave the lone prospector alone when they ran across him. Her partner had just given her that cocksure grin of his that made him seem so rakish and told her to lower the screen inside her helmet so the man couldn’t see her and stay silent.

So she did. Listening to the echo of her breathing in the confines of her helmet, she watched Daemon’s hand twitch. He was about to shoot. Pulling the trigger, she aimed for his heart and prayed that he didn’t shoot Ezra.

Piercing agony ripped into her body. Bolts of pain shooting through her as the metal flew. Funny how her thoughts weren’t on that, they were still on her partner.

They had met several stands ago. Right after Ezra had been marooned by his own team on the green moon. Her own partner had not listened to her warnings about infection and had passed two days prior. The fringe was unforgiving in that regard.

“Y/N!” She heard him as she fell to the ground, knees buckling under the cumbersome weight of the suit that she had to pilfer after her own had been compromised beyond repair. It had made her seem like a veritable giant, even though she was nearly the same height as Ezra.

Rushed hands started running over the thick fabric, uncoupling the over shield. The helmet had two layers, the fearsome exterior that seemed to make her look like a knight of old, like her loquacious partner likes to wax poetically about, and the clear visor that let them look easily upon one another.

Those russet eyes that normally had such a calculating look in them were wide with horror. She could feel the blood, taste the copper at the back of her throat. It was bad, they both knew it.

His voice shook, that hypnotic and steady voice betraying him. “Stay with me, little mole.” His helmet pressed against her as he looked down, his gloves covering the entrance to one of her wounds. “You must not abandon your mortal coil in this desolate place.” He begged.

Little Mole. The moniker that he had bestowed upon her after discovering her penchant to dig out the best harvesting spots where no obvious signs were present. She had believed that was why he had kept her around. That and for the ability to hear a voice other than his own.

Her laugh was cut off by her choking on the blood that filled her mouth, coughing it out to spray against the clear shield. Giving his face a speckled appearance. Her next laugh had a breezy quality, her lungs filling rapidly with the crimson lifeblood. “I didn’t know you cared.” She breathed, drinking in the face that she had come to adore. Her eyes raking over the blonde patch of hair, the scar over his left cheek, the perfect cupid’s bow of his lips. Memorizing them for the afterlife.

His face collapsed for a moment, a small sob coming over the radio and filling the ragged silence in her helmet. “My little mole, I must confess that I have been enamored with you since our first meet cute, right here in the weary hazards of the green.” Ezra pulls her up closer to his body, his voice cracking. “Stay with me, please.”

She lifted her hand, wishing that she could caress his cheek. Trace the scar with her fingers and brush them through the hair that she loved. Feel his lips, like she had imagined so many times before. Her gloved hand hit the clear protective shield of his helmet, before falling to rest on his arm.

“Ezra...I” Y/N coughed again, weaker. “I lov-”

Her body relaxed, eyes open and staring up at him, but not seeing.

He looks up, realizing that he had completely forgotten about the little girl that had a thrower pointed at him the moment he heard Y/N cry out. Leaving himself vulnerable to being killed himself.

She was standing there, the long thrower in her hands with a wide eyed look, fearful. His eyes bore into hers for a moment, wondering what her move will be as he holds Y/N’s body in his grips. She takes off, darting into the safety of the trees and out of his sight, fleeing from the carnage.

Emotion gripped his throat as he looked back down at her still form, making his voice thick. “I admit defeat, little mole. I was so grievously wrong. Religious scholars of old proclaimed that greed was one of the seven deadliest sins, and I fear that you have paid my price.” He squeezed his eyes together before looking back at the tree line where the girl disappeared. “I’ll find her, Y/N. I’ll make sure no harm comes to her. For you.”

He gently moves her body to rest against the log, looking out over the beautifully swampy waters of the marsh. Knowing that she always preferred to look out over the untamed harsh beauty of the green.

He stood over her, looking at her face one last time, committing her beauty to memory. “Not often have I found regret in my endeavors. But I will eternally mourn your mistaken assumptions that I held no affection for you, my little mole. For you are the keeper of my heart and I find that I am adrift in this universe without your angelic presence by my side.” He took a deep breath. “Rest well my love, may your everlasting slumber be peaceful.”

Ezra moved toward the packs they had dropped during the skirmish and collected what was needed to go find the girl. He would protect her better than he had his love, even if it meant sacrificing himself. He walked away from the spot, leaving a portion of his heart behind.

MasterList

Permanent Tag List:

@synystersilenceinblacknwhite @thisis-theway @hanelijoy @thewaythisis @readsalot73 @little-ms-fandom @ah-callie @cable-kenobi @roxypeanut @arrowswithwifi @badassbaker @javierpenaspinkshirt @wickedfrsgrl @lilangeldevil006 @fioccodineveautunnale @jade10077 @getinthepoolkeanu @kirstiehenderson29 @fleurdemiel145 @thirsty-flygirl @sirianfromsixties @random066 @pascalisthepunkest @pedrosdoll @whataenginerd @tangledlove27 @pedropascalisadilf @behindmyeyes-insidemyhead @gamingaquarius @the-baby-bookworm @jaime1110 @yamaktaria @perksofbeingivyy @earl-01 @gooddaykate @emesispo @deathlife97

#pedro pascal #pedro pascal character fanfiction #ezra (prospect) x reader #ezra (prospect)#ezra prospect fanfiction #ezra x you #ezra prospect #ezra x reader

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spinbitchzu · 5 years ago

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lazarus | harumi

The elevator descends with sickening stagnance. All around her, the bodies tremble and sweat, fear pouring off of them in waves. Harumi has stopped being afraid; her skin is glass and everything underneath is missing, leaving only the terrible hollowness. Her heart beats slow in her head and chest and fingers, until she can hardly hear the whirr of the elevator car over the dull thud that feels like a countdown.

The shaft shakes with the commotion outside, and everyone moans in terror as one. Harumi is pressed against the cold doors as the inhabitants of the elevator seem to expand as if there’s anywhere to escape to. The walls seem to shrink down and the cold of the metal leeches into her skin. Another child whimpers and begins to sob, hidden somewhere in the crush of people.

“Honey, listen to me. Listen to me, everything will be okay,” a voice comes, shaking but tender. Harumi feels sick to her stomach.

The soft chime of the bell announces their arrival on the first floor, and as the doors crack, Harumi is shoved forward as the crowd flees in panic, scattering like ants. The woman, whose arms her parents had shoved her in, momentarily hesitates, a hand on her shoulder.

“Come on, kid, you need to get to safety!” she cries. The whites of her eyes are too big as her eyes roll like a spooked horse.

Harumi stays rooted in place, listening to the rumble in the distance that shakes her to her core. She’s completely paralyzed.

“My parents,” she manages to whisper, resisting the jostling. “They’re still in there.”

“Kid, they’re as good as dead, you need to leave with me,” the woman urges her, pulling more insistently.

Harumi shakes her head frantically, panic bubbling in her throat. “I need to wait for my parents!”

The woman stares at her for a moment, almost calculating, and then her head snaps up as she catches a glimpse of something over Harumi’s shoulder. She blanches, and when she looks back, any semblance of compassion in her eyes is replaced by the unflinching hunger of someone who’s survival hangs in the balance. The sword of Damocles whistles as it cuts through the air and the woman turns tail, leaving Harumi alone.

It’s a funny feeling, to be standing in the middle of the chaos as it erupts. Harumi turns, too slow, to see the source of the woman’s fear and watches in captivated horror as all hell breaches the earth. A colossal serpent explodes through the sky scrapers, sending debris in every direction, and blasts through the street, following a red blur. She stares at it, realizing it’s one of the ninja that protects the city.

Her heart lifts and her lips part to shout to him, shout that her parents need help, but he’s gone before the words come. Instead of rescue, she sees gleaming muscular coils constrict around her apartment building. The structure creaks and groans, cracks spiderwebbing up the stucco sides. Harumi’s breath catches.

And then the building just gives, shattering in every direction.

Plumes of dust billow into the air and all around her, the screaming swells, harmonizing in a dissonant chord with the wail of sirens and car alarms and something else. There’s a wild, almost animalistic shriek mixed in with the cacophony. It takes a moment before she connects it to the choked fire tearing up her throat, and she dimly realizes the scream is coming from her.

“Mom! Dad!” The words escape her in a wretched howl. Before she can even process, she’s kneeling in the wreckage, shards of glass digging into her knees. Her hands scrabble and scrape on the jagged edges as she digs through the pile, desperation coursing through her veins like rolling lava.

Unlike before, she’s no longer empty—rather the opposite. Every warring emotion seems to spill over the brim, every heightened sensation too overwhelming to process. She becomes aware of the hot tears spilling down her cheeks and tastes the salt mixing with acrid ash.

The sobs that escape her are huge and gulping as she furiously digs through the rubble. The yawning cavern that gapes in her chest feels like it’s swallowing her as her fists fall fruitlessly on the uncaring heap.

“Mommy!” she bawls, voice splintering. “Daddy, please come back! Please, where are you?”

Where are you?

She shoves what must have once been a table and keeps digging. Her fingers catch on a broken window pane and slick, hot blood courses down her palms.

I need you!

A fit of coughing descends upon her as dust motes float into the air. She blinks away the tears that mingle with the grime on her face and sniffles and keeps digging.

I don’t want to be alone...

The drywall she moves crumbles to reveal more rubble, endlessly heaped in every which way. But if she gives up, what will she have left? The all-consuming maw that threatens to finish her? Harumi grits her teeth, eyes stinging once more, and keeps digging. Every inch of her quivers with adrenaline and need.

I DON’T WANT TO BE ALONE!

The thought explodes across her like a wildfire and she flies into a frenzy of digging. Everything kind of whites out for the next few moments. Harumi tastes metallic copper with the salt in her mouth, and as her breath turns ragged, her spittle is dyed scarlet. It seems like a loop where as much as she digs, she only finds more debris.

Then suddenly, she heaves a fallen door over and her whole world freezes over. Time trickles to a stop. Even her heart seems to pause in its hammering rhythm. Her hands stiffen over what she’s uncovered.

The flesh under hers is cold and clammy, and does not give. It’s strange, almost grey, as if it isn’t human at all, but Harumi knows with annihilating certainty that it is.

And—

And it hurts unimaginably so. More than she thought it ever would. Pain seems to physically press against her heart as she lets out a strangled gasp, desperate for the inflation of her lungs to alleviate the pressure.

Her gut clenches, and she throws herself to the left as the contents of her stomach make a violent reappearance. She can’t help but weep even when her stomach settles and all the tension leaks from her body as she collapses into what used to be her home. She doesn’t stir from her position, eyes locked on the very thing that caused her nausea: a pair of intertwined hands that once stroked her hair and pinched her cheeks. Their wedding bands, though veiled in a thin layer of dirt, shine dimly in the light.

Harumi thinks, in an oddly abstracted way, that this is what it feels like to die.

Is this what damnation is? To have every little bit of you that loves be extinguished in one fell swoop? And if she lives still, what is left over? What survives the loss of everything that matters?

In the background, the sounds of the city carry on. The car alarms continue to rise and fall in their endless cry. The people continue to shout in fear. Even that forsaken snake continues to tear through the city, trailing destruction. But in Harumi’s head, everything has become eerily quiet.

Her eyes crack open as she senses something change. She opens her eyes to complete darkness, with just one beacon of light. Harumi’s eyes lock onto the tiny dark figure at the top of the building, sparkling with the golden weapons he raises. The crushing weight on her chest lifts for the briefest moment as Lord Garmadon’s mouth twists in a wordless scream as he plummets off the building. It should inspire terror or concern or satisfaction or something, but instead—

Instead, her mouth knifes up into a ruined little smile. And slowly, softly, Harumi’s heart begins to beat again.

…

Harumi waits for the rescue she knows will come. Soaked in the slimy aftermath of the Great Devourer’s defeat from head to toe, she sits cross-legged on the pile and makes up a little song in her head to pass the time.

The paramedic who puts a blanket around her shoulders has a gentle voice despite the exhaustion she must be fighting. Her tone is light as she remarks:

“My, my. Aren’t you the quiet one!”

... In the wake of the battle, Harumi is shepherded from place to place like a lost lamb. First, it’s a shelter full of cold strangers and burned-out volunteers. Then they drop her in an orphanage where the linoleum floors smell of lemon cleaners and the children cry all night.

Finally, she’s being chauffeured into the royal palace, feeling small and out of place to meet the royal family. The king and queen smile beatifically at her, but their painted masks ruin the effect. She shivers and pulls away from them, with their moon-white faces and blood-red lips, grotesquely beautiful. The cloying luxury of the palace, untouched despite the battle, disturbs her.

“This is your new home, Harumi,” the queen tells her, tucking her into bed. “Try to leave the past behind, okay? You’re a princess now.”

“And you should call us mom and dad,” the king adds kindly. “Good night, Harumi.”

She studies the happiness on their porcelain faces with detached curiosity and then imitates it. Like a little doll, she parrots back, “Goodnight, Mom, goodnight, Dad.”

That night she dreams of the elevator, of the doors that slide shut and seal her fate. Then four pairs of ink-black hands appear in the gap just before they close and pry the doors back open. In the darkness, a pair of glowing violet eyes appear, along with a razor-sharp smile.

Do not fear. I will protect you, daughter.

Harumi wakes up with something to believe in.

#ninjago #lego ninjago #ninjago harumi #ninjago kai #brief as the mention is lol #lord garmadon #ninjago garmadon #my writing #angst #basically harumi's villain origin story since the writers didn't handle it themselves #I have to do ALL the work around here huh #character study #tw angst #tw minor gore #tw death #tw trauma

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itsdisguisetimerobbierotten · 8 years ago

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A Heavy Crown

The Autumn Queen sat upon her throne, a massive thing of thick dark branches and dark gold. Leaves of rich copper and deep purple framed the tall back and coated the padding. Her crown felt heavy on her brow, the stylized rose gold leaves set with shining purple topaz, calm and balanced clarity. Mama Rosaline Rotten sat in contemplation.

Long gone was the wild child from her youth who danced barefoot across the wooden deck of her father’s ship with a bottle in hand. Gone was the wild child who chomped cigars and shook dice while covered in sea water and tattoos and little else. The child had aged and gone to shore, long locks cut short and feet planted in the earth to sow and reap the harvest. Fingers to tangled in the vines and nurture life to ripen for the great harvests. Where once Rossie was carefree, now she calculated and planned. Summer was for wild freedom, Autumn was for preparation.

The power of her station, the mantle of the Queen, thrummed through her. Rosaline didn’t regret her life choices, she’d do it all again in a heartbeat. She had regrets, loss… but that was part of life as all of Autumn accepted. Death would come to claim all in time. Still… the Queen was restless, she needed to stretch her legs. Perhaps it was time to go play… The Autumn Lady could fill in for a bit while Rossie pursued the gambling halls and breathed in the thick smoke again. It was a deep craving that coiled in her gut like a snake.

Quietly Rossie ran she fingers over the hard wood of her throne, grooves worn by fingers far older than hers. Responsibility meant she could not take such a leave lightly. There would have to be plans in place, preparations made. Wearily, she had a pang of nostalgia for the days when she could simply dive off her father’s ship and disappear for years at a time.

Rising, she stepped down from the dais of the throne, fur trimmed cloak trailing behind her. Reaching the ground floor, her heels clicked against the polished stone floor as she turned towards her personal garden. With a wave of her hand, she dismissed her guards and servants. The Queen would tend to her garden alone. It was her sanctuary.

There were no flowers in the garden of Autumn, the pants were instead heavy and ripe with fruit, ready for the harvest. Apples and pears hung heavy on the branches of her orchard, thick vines coiled around the squash. The leaves thick and green with life, some changing to brilliant colors in deep reds, purples, and oranges. Nearly metallic in their hues. Her heels clicked in the stone path as she walked, chin high and serene.

With the doors closed behind her and the warm sunlight pouring into the private sanctuary, she removed her crown. Hanging it from a branch, she slipped out of her long evening cloak as well. With a deep sigh of relief, she ran her fingers through her gray locks. For just a moment. She could steal just a moment to herself. The crown was just far too heavy today.

Reaching out and taking a lush pear into her hand, nearly purple in color, she bit into it. The juice dripped down her chin. With a sinful moan, she finished the pear and tossed the core into the brush. Its corpse would feed the others that still lived. The sweet musk of fallen ripe fruit filled the air of the garden, thick with the sounds of bugs and birds and small critters. Life and death hung in heavy balance under her careful hands.

Stepping out of her heels, she twisted from her dress, letting it fall to the ground. Her stocking followed so that her bare toes could sink into the fresh earth. With a deep groan, the corset was unlaced and dropped behind her. Her toned back was covering in tattoos, a mermaid twirling up her spine below a compass. Her chest was all but flat as she ran her painted nails across her broad chest. The corset had forced a shape that had not been entirely her own.

Clad only in her underskirt and jewelry, Rossie danced through her garden, a song from her childhood bubbling to her lips. She sang of undersea adventures and fighting krakens, of mermaid lovers and high sea battles. At the height of the chord, she spun, she painted nails like claws as she sank them into the bark of a tree. Rending it with her nails, the Autumn Queen claimed its life, it withered under her touch. Following its corpse to the earth, she sank her hands deep into the roots and coaxed out a new sapling.

Her song shifted to one she had learned from the dryads. When the sea had lost its wonder, the wild child had found pride in creation. In being a mother. Placing a fond kiss on the green sapling, Rossie rose to her feet. Spring sowed its seeds without care, they did not tend their gardens. What grew, lived; what did not, was lost. Autumn always planned. Sacrifices were calculated and with purpose. Every life mattered, even if its purpose was to nourish others.

Covered in dirt, Rossie settled into vines that hung from a tree like a hammock. They curled under her, cradling the Queen. Her crown was heavy, but she could imagine no other life. She was born to rule, to command. Never could she image settling for less. She would take her vacation, domineer the gambling dens, maybe take a lover again. But she knew she would soon itch to return. Her brow felt empty without the weight of her crown.

#my writing #mama rotten #drabbles #fae queen #faeries

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paper1125 · 4 years ago

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What are the advantages of toroidal transformer

What are the advantages of the toroidal transformer? The core of the toroidal transformer is made of high-quality cold-rolled silicon steel sheets (the thickness of the sheet is generally less than 0.35mm), which is seamlessly rolled, which makes its core performance better than that of the What are the advantages of toroidal transformer The core of the toroidal transformer is made of high-quality cold-rolled silicon steel sheet (the thickness of the sheet is generally less than 0.35mm), which is seamlessly rolled, which makes its core performance better than the traditional laminated core. The coil of the toroidal transformer is evenly wound on the core, and the direction of the magnetic field lines generated by the coil almost completely coincides with the core magnetic circuit. Compared with the laminated type, the excitation energy and core loss will be reduced by 25%, which brings the following series The advantages.

High electrical efficiency The core has no air gap, the stacking factor can be as high as 95% or more, the core permeability can be 1.5 to 1.8T (the laminated core can only be 1.2 to 1.4T), the electrical efficiency is up to 95%, and the no-load current is only 10% of the laminated type. The small size and light weight toroidal transformer can reduce the weight by half compared with the laminated transformer. As long as the core cross-sectional area is kept equal, the toroidal transformer can easily change the ratio of the length, width and height of the core, and the outer size can be designed to meet the requirements. The magnetic core with low magnetic interference has no air gap, and the winding is evenly wound on the toroidal core. This structure results in small magnetic leakage and small electromagnetic radiation. It can be used in high-sensitivity electronic equipment without additional shielding. For example, it is used in low-level amplifiers and medical equipment.

Vibration noise is small. The core does not have an air gap to reduce the core. Product classification According to foreign literature, toroidal transformers can be divided into three types: standard type, economic type and isolated type. The characteristics of each type are: series capacity 8 ~ 1500VA, there is a small The voltage regulation rate and temperature rise at full load operation are only 40 ° C, allowing short-term overload operation, suitable for demanding use occasions. Class B (130 ° C) polyester film insulation is used between the primary and secondary windings. At least three layers of insulating tape are required to withstand the voltage test of AC 4000V and 1min. What are the advantages of toroidal transformer How is the transformer power calculated Calculate the transformer input power P1 (set the transformer efficiency η = 0.95) and the input current I1 where: K—the coefficient is related to the transformer power, K = 0.6 ～ 0.8, take K = 0.75; select the core size according to the existing core specifications as : Height H = 40mm, inner diameter Dno = 55mm, outer diameter Dwo = 110mm. In the formula: f—— power frequency (Hz), f = 50Hz; B—— magnetic flux density (T), B = 1.4T. N2 = N20 · U2 = 3.23 × 11.8 = 38.1 turns, take N2 = 38 turns. 6) Select the wire diameter. The wire diameter d of the winding wire is calculated according to formula (10). Where: I——current through the wire (A); j——current density, j = 2.5 ～ 3A / mm2. When taking j = 2.5A / mm2 into the formula (10), two wires with d = 2.12mm (considering the maximum outer diameter of the insulating paint is 2.21mm) should be used and wound. Because the cross-sectional area of the Φ2.94 conductor Sd2 = 6.78mm2, and the cross-sectional area of the d = 2.12mm conductor is 3.53mm2, the cross-sectional area of the two parallels is: 2 × 3.53 = 7.06mm2, which fully meets the requirements and has a large margin . 6 Calculation of the structure of the toroidal transformer The winding of the toroidal transformer is wound by the winding ring of the winding machine in the iron core. Therefore, the size of the inner diameter of the iron core is very important for the processing process.

The purpose of the structure calculation is to check the complete winding After the winding, how much space is left in the inner diameter. If the calculated inner diameter space is too small to meet the winding requirements, the core size can be modified, as long as the cross-sectional area remains unchanged, the electrical performance is basically unchanged. It is known that the inner diameter of the core Dno = 55mm, the thickness of each insulating layer in FIG. 7 is to = 1.5mm, and t1 = t2 = 1mm. Calculate the inner diameter Dn2 after winding the primary winding and covering the insulation. Calculate the number of turns of each layer of the primary winding n1 where: Dn1-the inner diameter after the core is insulated, Dn1 = Dno-2t0 = 55- (2 × 1.5) = 52mm ; kp——overlap coefficient, kp = 1.15. Then the number of layers of the primary winding Q1 is the thickness of the primary winding δ1. Transformer temperature rise problem Temperature rise problem The temperature rise characteristic curve of the toroidal transformer is shown in Figure 6. From Figure 6, it can be seen that the temperature rise of the toroidal transformer is relatively low. For the standard series, even if the overload is 120%, the temperature rise does not exceed 70 ° C. The temperature rise of the transformer is determined by the iron loss and the copper loss. For the laminated transformer, the two parts are basically equal, but the toroidal transformer is wound with high-quality cold-rolled silicon steel sheets and cooperates with a good annealing process. The loss is only (10 ~ 20)% of the total loss, so the temperature rise is mainly determined by the copper loss of the winding. The reasonable design is that the power consumption of the primary and secondary windings should be basically balanced. The temperature rise is also closely related to the heat dissipation area. Since the temperature rise of the core of the toroidal transformer is low, the winding is evenly wound on the entire core, the heat dissipation area and the heat dissipation conditions are better, so a lower temperature rise can be obtained.

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printingproducts0318 · 4 years ago

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What are the advantages of toroidal transformer

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nexuscopperpvtltd · 6 months ago

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cat0620 · 4 years ago

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What are the advantages of toroidal transformer

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littlecat0520 · 4 years ago

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What are the advantages of toroidal transformer

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sere22world · 4 years ago

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What are the advantages of toroidal transformer

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siva3155 · 5 years ago

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300+ TOP Electrical Machine Design Objective Type Questions and Answers

Electrical Machine Design Multiple Choice Questions :-

1. Which of the following is the major consideration to evolve a good design ? (a) Cost (b) Durability (c) Compliance with performance criteria as laid down in specifications (d) All of the above Ans: d 2 impose limitation on design. (a) Saturation (b) Temperature rise (c) Efficiency (d) Power factor (e) All above Ans: e 3. The efficiency of a machine should be as ______ as possible to reduce the operating cost. (a) high (b) low (c) either of the above (d) none of the above Ans: a 4. If an insulating material is operated beyond the maximum allowable temperature, its life is (a) drastically increased (b) drastically reduced (c) unaffected (d) none of the above Ans: b 5. The design of mechanical parts is particularly important in case of _____ speed machines. (a) low (b) medium (c) high (d) any of the above Ans: c 6. In induction motors, the length of air gap in kept as small as mechanically possible is order to have (a) low power factor (b) high power factor (c) high over load capacity (d) any of the above Ans: b 7. In ______ machines, the size of the shaft is decided by the critical speed which depends on the deflection of the shaft. (a) small (b) medium (c) large (d) any of the above. Ans: c 8. The length cf air gap to be provided in ______ is primarily determined by power factor consideration. (a) d.c. series motor . (b) d.c. shunt motor (c) induction motor (d) synchronous motor Ans: c 9. Electrical machines having a power output up to about 750 W may be called_______machines. (a) small size (b) medium size (c) large size (d) any of the above Ans: a 10. Electrical machines having power outputs ranging from a few kW up to approximately 250 kW may be classified as (a) small size machines (b) medium size machines (c) large size machines (d) any of the above Ans: b 11. Commercial available medium size machines have a speed range of ______ . (a) 200 to 400 r.p.m. (b) 600 to 1000 r.p.m. (c) 1000 to 1500 r.p.m. (d) 2000 to 2500 r.p.m. Ans: d 12. The action of electromagnetic machines can be related to which of the following basic principles ? (a) Induction (b) Interaction (c) Alignment (d) All of the above Ans: d 13. The change in flux linkages can be caused in which of the following ways ? (a) The flux is constant with respect to time and is stationary and the coil moves through it (b) The coil is stationary with respect to flux and the flux varies in magnitude with respect to time (c) Both the changes mentioned above occur together, i.e., the coil moves through a time varying field (d) All of the above Ans: d 14 is universally used for windings of electrical machines because it is easily workable without any possibility of fracture. (a) Silver (b) Steel (c) Aluminium (d) Copper Ans: d 15. Aluminium when adopted as a conductor material in ______ transformers, decreases the overall cost of the transformer (a) small size (b) medium size (c) large size (d) any of the above size Ans: a 16. Which of the following materials is used in the manufacture of resistance grids to be used in the starters of large motors ? (a) Copper (b) Aluminium (c) Steel (d) Cast-iron Ans: d 17. Materials exhibiting zero value of resistivity are known as ______ . (a) conductors (b) semiconductors (c) insulators (d) superconductors Ans: d 18. ________ has a lowrelative permeability and is used principally in field frames when cost is of primary importance and extra weight is not objectionable. (a) Cast steel (b) Aluminium (c) Soft steel (d) Cast iron Ans: d 19 ______is extensively used for those portions of magnetic circuit which carry steady flux and need superior mechanical properties ? (a) Grey cast-iron (b) Cast steel (c) High carbon steel (d) Stainless steel Ans: b 20. Hot rolled sheets have ______ value of permeability (a) zero (b) low (c) high (d) none of the above Ans: b 21. The heated parts of an electrical machine dissipate heat into their surroundings by which of the following modes of heat dissipation ? (a) Conduction (b) Convection (c) Radiation (d) All of the above Ans: d 22. The heat dissipated by from a surface depends upon its temperature and its characteristics like colour, roughness etc. (a) conduction (b) convection (c) radiation (d) any of the above Ans: c 23. The mcrease in heat dissipation by air blasts is due to increase in (a) conduction (b) convection (e) radiation (d) any ofthe above Ans: b 24. On which of the following variables heat convected depends ? (a) Power density (b) Temperature difference between heated surface and coolant (c) Thermal resistivity, density, specific heat (d) Gravitational constant (e) All of the above Ans: e 25. Which of the following methods is used for air cooling of turbo-alternators ? (a) One sided axial ventilation (b) Two sided axial ventilation (c) Multiple inlet system (d) All of the above Ans: d 26. Multiple inlet system of air cooling of turbo-alternators can be used for machines of rating upto (a) 10 MW (b) 30 MW (c) 60 MW (d) 150 MW Ans: c 27. Which of the following is an advantage of hydrogen cooling ? (a) Increase in efficiency (b) Increase in ratings (c) Increase in life (d) Smaller size of coolers (e) All of the above Ans: e 28. The density of hydrogen is _____ times the density of air. (a) 0.07 (b) 1.5 (c) 2.5 (d) 3.5 Ans: a 29. Hydrogen has a heat transfer co-efficient _____ times that of air (a) 1.5 (b) 2.5 (c) 3.5 (d) 4.5 Ans: a 30. The thermal conductivity of hydrogen is ______ times that of air (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 7 Ans: d 31. With conventional hydrogen cooling it is possible to increase the rating of a single unit to (a) 50 MW (b) 100 MW (c) 200 MW (d) none of the above Ans: c 32. The noise produced by a ______ cooled machine is less as the rotor moves in a medium of smaller density. (a) air (b) hydrogen (c) either (a) or (b) (d) none of the above Ans: b 33. cooling is the process of dissipating the armature and field winding losses to a cooling medium circulating within the winding insulation wall (a) Direct (b) Indirect (c) Conventional (d) Any of the above Ans: a 34. Machines cooled by direct cooling method may be called (a) "supercharged" (b) "inner cooled" (c) "conductor cooled" (d) any of the above Ans: d 35. In direct cooled system using hydrogen both stator and rotor conductors are made (a) solid (b) hollow (c) perforated (d) any ofthe above Ans: b 36. With direct water cooling it is possible to have ratings of about (a) 200 MW (b) 300 MW (c) 400 MW (d) 600 MW Ans: d 37. The resistivity of water should not be less than (a) 10 Q m (b) 100 Q m (c) 1000 Q m (d) 2000 Q m Ans: d 38. Direct water cooling of rotor winding presents (a) no mechanical difficulties (b) lesser mechanical difficulties (c) greater mechanical difficulties (d) none of the above Ans: c 39. The time taken by the machine to attain 0.632 of its final steady temperature rise is called (a) heating time constant (b) cooling time constant (c) either (a) or (b) (d) none of the above Ans: a 40. In self cooled motors the cooling time constant is about ______ than the heating time constant because cooling conditions are worse at standstill. (a) 2 to 3 times greater (b) 3 to 4 times greater (c) 4 to 5 times greater (d) none of the above Ans: a 41. By which of the following methods motor rating for variable load drives can be determined ? (a) Method of average losses (b) Equivalent current method (c) Equivalent torque method (d) Equivalent power method (e) All of the above. Ans: e 42. Which of the following methods does not take into account the maximum temperature rise under variable load conditions ? (a) Equivalent power method (b) Equivalent current method (c) Method of average losses (d) Equivalent torque method Ans: c 43. Which of the following methods is most accurate ? (a) Equivalent current method (b) Equivalent power method (c) Equivalent torque method (d) Method of average losses Ans: a 44. By which of the following methods the temperature rise of windings and other parts may be determined ? (a) Thermometer method (6) Resistance method (c) Embedded temperature detector method (d) Any of the above Ans: d 45. The slot leakage can be calculated by making which of the following assumptions ? (a) The current in the slot conductors is uniformly distributed over their cross-section (b) The leakage path is straight across the slot and around the iron at the bottom (c) The permanence of air paths is only considered. The reluctance of iron paths is assumed as zero (d) All of the above Ans: d 46. The value of exciting or magnetizing current depends upon which of the following factors ? (a) Total m.m.f. required (b) The number of turns in the exciting winding (c) The way in which the winding is distributed (d) All of the above Ans: d 47. Tractive magnets are operated from (a) a.c. supply (b) d.c. supply (c) either a.c. or d.c. supply (d) none of the above Ans: c 48. electromagnets generally function as holding magnets. (a) Tractive (b) Portative (c) Either of the above (d) None of the above Ans: b 49. Which of the following is the commonly used type of electromagnets ? (a) Flat-faced armature type (b) Horse shoe type (c) Flat-faced plunger type (d) All of the above Ans: d 50. are used for construction of core of electromagnets. (a) Soft magnetic materials (b) Hard magnetic materials (c) Either (a) or (b) (d) None of the above Ans: a 51. The design of electromagnets is based upon which of the following fundamental equations ? (a) Force equation (b) Magnetic circuit equation (c) Heating equation (d) Voltage equation (e) All of the above Ans: e 52. When the two coil sides forming a coil are spaced exactly one pole pitch apart they are said to be of (a) short pitch (b) full pitch (c) either of the above (d) none of the above Ans: b 53. are always double layer type. (a) Closed windings (b) Open windings (c) Either of the above (d) None of the above Ans: a 54. The distance between the starts of two consecutive coils measured in terms of coil sides is called (a) front pitch (b) winding pitch (c) commutator pitch (d) back pitch Ans: b 55. The winding where dummy coils are used is sometimes called (a) duplex winding (b) triplex winding (c) forced winding (d) none of the above Ans: c Electrical Machine Design Questions and Answers :: 56. Dummy coil should not be used in (a) small machines (b) large machines (c) either (a) or (b) (d) none of the above Ans: b 57. Power transformers have rating (a) equal to 50 kVA (6) equal to 100 kVA (c) above 200 kVA (d) none of the above Ans: c 58. Power transformers should be designed to have maximum efficiency (a) at one-fourth load (b) at one-half load (c) at or near full load (d) any of the above Ans: c 59. In transformers using hot rolled steel, the cross-section of the yoke is made about _____ greater than that of the core (a) 5 percent (b) 10 percent (c) 15 percent (d) 30 percent (e) none of the above Ans: c 60. Yokes with rectangular cross-section are used for (a) small capacity transformers (b) medium capacity transformers (c) large capacity transformers (d) any of the above Ans: a 61. The cold rolled grain oriented steel has ______ permeability in the direction of the grain orientation. (a) minimum (b) maximum (c) nil (d) none of the above Ans: b 62. Cylindrical windings using circular conductors, employed in transformers, are (a) single layered (b) double layered (c) multi-layered (d) none of the above Ans: c 63. Helical windings are used in (a) distribution transformers (b) power transformers (c) shell type transformers (d) none of the above Ans: b 64. Multi-layer helical windings are commonly used in the transformers as high voltage windings (a) upto 20 kV (b) upto 50 kV (c) upto 80 kV (d) for 110 kV and above Ans: d 65. Disc windings are primarily used in (a) short capacity transformers (b) medium capacity transformers (c) high capacity transformers (d) any of the above Ans: c 66. The heat dissipating capability of transformers of ratings higher than 30 kVA in increased by providing which of the following ? (a) Corrugations (b) Fins (c) Tubes (d) Radiator tanks (e) All of the above Ans: e 67. Transformers with a capacity of up to _____ have a cooling radiator system with natural cooling (a) 2 MVA (b) 5 MVA (c) 7.5 MVA (d) 10 MVA Ans: d 68. The forced oil and air circulation method is usual one for transformers of capacities (a) upto 5 MVA (b) upto 10 MVA (c) upto 20 MVA (d) 30 MVA upwards Ans: d 69. The flash point of transformer oil should be higher than (a) 40°C (b) 60°C (c) 80°C (d) 104°C Ans: d 70. The voltage control in electric supply networks in required on account of which of the following reasons ? (a) Adjustment of voltage at consumers premises within statutory limits (b) Control of active and reactive power (c) Adjustment of short period daily and seasonal voltage variations in accordance with variations of load (d) All of the above Ans: d 71. D.C. windings are (a) sometimes 2-layer type (b) never 2-layer type (c) always 2-layer type (d) none of the above Ans: c 72. The usual values of maximum flux densities for distribution transformers using hot rolled silicon steel are (a) 0.5 to 0.8 Wb/m2 (b) 0.8 to 1.0 Wb/m2 (c) 1.1 to 1.35 Wb/m2 (d) 1.4 to 1.8 Wb/m2 Ans: c 73. For 275 kV transformers, using cold rolled grain oriented steel, which of the following values of flux density may be used? (a) 1.0 Wb/m2 (b) 1.1 Wb/m2 (c) 1.3 Wb/m2 (d) 1.6 Wb/m2 (e) None of the above Ans: d 74. For large power transformers, self oil cooled type or air blast type which of the following values of current density may be used ? (a) 1.0 to 1.2 A/mm2 (b) 1.5 to 2.0 A/mm2 (c) 2.2 to 3.2 A/mm2 (d) 3.2 to 4.2 A/mm2 Ans: c 75. A current density of _____ is ilsed for large power transformers with forced circulation of oil or with water cooling coils (a) 1.5 to 2.5 A/mm2 (b) 3.5 to 4.5 A/mm2 (c) 4.0 to 5.0 A/mm2 (d) 5.4 to 6.2 A/mm2 Ans: d 76. The high voltage winding is usually which of the following type ? (a) Cylindrical winding with circular conductors (b) Cross-over winding with either circular or small rectangular conductors (c) Continuous disc type winding with rectangular conductors (d) All of the above types Ans: d 77. Which of the following is the basic consideration in the design of insulation ? (a) Electrical considerations (b) Mechanical considerations (c) Thermal considerations (d) All of the above Ans: d 78. A practical formula for determining the thickness of insulation between low voltage and high voltage windings is (a) 1 + 0.2 kVmm (6) 2 + 0.5 kVmm (c) 4 + 0.7 kV mm (d) 5 + 0.9 kV mm Ans: d 79. The insulation between windings and grounded core and the insulation between the windings of the same phase is called (a) minor insulation (b) major insulation (c) either of the above (d) none of the above Ans: b 80. The cylindrical windings using circular conductors are used for current rating of (a) upto 20 A (b) upto 40 A (c) upto 60 A (d) upto 80 A Ans: d 81. The surge phenomenon is particularly important in case of (a) low voltage transformers (b) medium voltage transformers (c) high voltage transformers (d) any of the above Ans: c 82. Which of the following in an application of D.C. motors? (a) Traction (b) Drives for process industry (c) Battery driven vehicles (d) Automatic control (e) All of the above Ans: e 83. D.C. servomotors are used in (a) purely D.C. control systems (6) purely AC. control systems (c) both D.C. and AC. control systems (d) none of the above Ans: a 84. The stator of a D.C. machine comprises of (a) main poles (6) interpoles (c) frame (d) all of the above Ans: d 85. The laminations of the armature of a D.C. machine are usually _____ thick. (a) 0.1 to 0.2 mm (b) 0.2 to 0.3 mm (c) 0.3 to 0.4 mm (d) 0.4 to 0.5 mm Ans: d 86. is usually used for brush rockers (a) Mild steel (b) Copper (c) Aluminium (d) Cast-iron Ans: d 87. ______ brushes are fragile and cause excessive wear of commutator, (a) Natural graphite (b) Hard carbon (c) Electro graphitic (d) Metal graphite Ans: a 88. Which of the following brushes can be used for high values of current density ? (a) Metal graphite brushes (b) Hard carbon brushes (c) Electro-graphitic brushes (d) Natural graphite brushes Ans: a 89. ________ is the common method of applying brushes to the commntator. (a) Radial (b) Trailing (c) Reaction (d) All of the above Ans: d 90. Which of the following problem arises in D.C. motors which are fed from thyristor bridge circuits ? (a) Increased I R losses (b) Increased core losses (c) Poor commutation (d) Change in motor parameters (e) All of the above Ans: e 91. The weight of copper of both armature and field windings decreases with _____ in number of poles. (a) increase (b) decrease (c) either of the above (d) none of the above Ans: a 92. In a D.C. machine the number of brush arms is _____ the number of poles. (a) less than (b) equal to (c) greater than (d) none of the above Ans: b 93. In a D.C. machine the current per brush arm should not be more than (a) 100 A (6) 200 A (e) 300 A (d) 400 A Ans: d 94. In a D.C. machine, the value of peripheral speed should not, normally, exceed (a) 10 m/s (b) 20 m/s (c) 30 m/s (d) 40 m/s Ans: c 95. In D.C. machines the width of the duct is usually (a) 4 mm (b) 6 mm (c) 8 mm (d) 10 mm Ans: d 96. D.C. machines designed with a large value of air gap length have (a) worst, ventilation (b) poor ventilation (c) better ventilation (d) none of the above Ans: c 97. In D.C. machines, ir order to prevent excessive distortion of field form by the armature reaction, the field mmf must be made (a) equal to that of armature mmf (b) less in comparison with the armature mmf (c) large in comparison with the armature mmf (d) none of the above Ans: c 98. In D.C. machines, the ____ in field mmf results in increase in size and cost of machines. (a) increase (b) decrease (c) either of the above (d) none of the above Ans: a 99. The operation of a D.C. machine with large air gap lengths is comparatively (a) quiet (b) noisy (c) either of the above (d) none of the above Ans: a 100. Which of the following methods may be adopted to reduce the effects of armature reaction ? (a) Increase in length of air gap at pole tips (b) Increasing reluctance of pole tips (c) Compensating windings (d) Interpoles (e) All of the above Ans: e 101. In D.C. machines the usual limit of slot pitch is (a) between 5 to 10 mm (b) between 10 to 15 mm (c) between 15 to 20 mm (d) between 25 to 35 mm Ans: d 110. In D.C. machines the number of slots per pole usually lies (a) between 2 to 4 (b) between 6 to 8 (c) between 9 to 16 (d) between 20 to 30 Ans: c Electrical Machine Design Mcqs Pdf :: Read the full article

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technato · 6 years ago

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The Troubled Quest for the Superconducting Wind Turbine

To keep offshore wind turbines light, engineers look beyond superconductors to a new permanent‑magnet tech

Photo: Howard Litherland/Alamy

Turn, Baby, Turn: Wind turbines off the north coast of Wales.

Try to wrap your head around this: A slender tower stretches 100 meters above the waves. Blades, each one of them nearly 60 meters long, face down the briny spray as they turn about a 250-metric-ton nacelle at the top of the tower, which houses the turbine generator and everything else needed to produce electricity.

Now double the size of everything, and make it five times as heavy.

That’s the problem that will eventually face builders of offshore wind farms. In general, bigger—more megawatts per turbine—is better. So wind farm operators have been demanding higher-power offshore turbines, and manufacturers have been delivering. The most powerful turbine yet installed, an 8.8-megawatt machine from Vestas Wind Systems, went up off the coast of Scotland in April, and bids for some upcoming North Sea wind farms were made with the expectation that 13- to 15-MW turbines would be available by the middle of the next decade. Such turbines could power about 9,000 homes while the wind is blowing. But though bigger might be better, without some equally big changes in the wind turbine’s core technologies, bigger quickly becomes ludicrous.

A European Union project called InnWind calculated that if a 20-MW wind turbine were to be built with today’s technology, its nacelle alone would weigh nearly 1,100 metric tons (the mass of 11 blue whales). The turbine’s three blades themselves would weigh nearly 40 metric tons each and span a diameter of more than 250 meters (8 blue whales in length). The tower beneath this monster of megawatts would need to weigh nearly 1,800 metric tons to hold up all of these structures some 170 meters above the waves. To complete the picture: That’s 18 blue whales holding up 11 others with 8 more spinning like a cetacean pinwheel. (You’re welcome.)

Illustration: James Provost

Massive Machines: Today’s biggest offshore turbine is dwarfed by proposed 20-megawatt turbines. Low-cost systems designed by the InnWind consortium show superconductors [far right] making for a less-massive system. But an upstart permanent-magnet technology [second from right] is lightest.

“The problem is that there is a limit for constructing with current technology,” says Iker Marino, an electrical engineer in the renewable energy and storage systems group at the Spanish applied-research organization Tecnalia Corporación Tecnológica and coordinator of an EU superconducting turbine project called Suprapower. “The weight of the top of the machine is too huge.”

So how do you remove hundreds of tons from the mass of a machine made of magnets, gears, iron cores, and kilometers of copper winding? Exchange the magnets and maybe even the copper winding for coils of superconductors.

Simple, right? Actually, no. Years-long multinational research efforts have recently concluded that, while feasible, building such a turbine would be a monumental tech challenge. And the case for doing so is weakening as permanent magnets get better and cheaper. In fact, a dark-horse competitor whose technology is based on permanent magnets is on track to nudge superconductors aside in the 10-MW realm. And unless either the economics or the attributes of superconductors greatly improve—and, actually, both things are indeed possible—even future 20-MW titans of the sea might be superconductor-free.

Wind turbines are complicated. They operate as a result of an interplay of mechanical, magnetic, and electrical processes that change in complex ways with every tweak of a parameter. Nevertheless, they all have essentially the same set of basic conditions and components. The blades turn at a pretty stately pace, though with a great deal of torque. That slow speed is far from ideal for generating electricity, so in geared turbines—the majority, particularly onshore—a gearbox steps up the speed hundreds of times, devoting that rapid rotation to the spinning of the generator.

But in an effort to reduce maintenance costs, some manufacturers are turning to an alternative offshore turbine technology called direct drive, which requires no gearbox. Here, the rotor is a gigantic ring holding many permanent magnets with alternating polarity. The generator’s other key component—the stator—surrounds the rotor. It contains coils of copper wire where voltage is induced by the rotor’s magnetic field.

Illustration: James Provost

Superconducting Wind Turbine: A 10-megawatt turbine generator designed as part of the Suprapower project uses magnesium diboride superconductors as the rotor’s electromagnets. Each of the 48 magnets is cooled to below 40 kelvins and sits in its own cryostat.

Basically, superconductors can reduce the weight of a generator because they can replace the direct drive’s permanent magnets with lighter electromagnets made from coils of superconducting wire. These electromagnets are comparatively light because superconductors can carry an enormous amount of current—that is, they have a high current density. Copper conductors in such machines top out in the single digits of amperes per square millimeter cross section. In the experimental superconducting turbine winding built for the Suprapower 10-MW turbine project, current density leaps to an astounding 58 A/mm2.

Much has been made of the potential of high-temperature superconductors, such as yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO), because they become superconductive at temperatures below 90 kelvins—warm enough for cooling with cheap liquid nitrogen instead of very costly liquid helium. And a leading YBCO maker, AMSC, produced a rough turbine design several years ago. (The company did not respond to requests for comment on this article.) But most of the recent European superconducting wind turbine projects have independently settled on a different superconductor: magnesium diboride.

Magnesium diboride’s superconductivity was discovered only in 2001, and although it doesn’t lose its resistance until it dips below 40 K, it’s so much less expensive that it beat YBCO in every cost analysis. At about €4 (US $4.63) per meter of tape, MgB2 is “maybe not the material that gives the best performance, but it gives the best cost performance,” says Marino.

Columbus Superconductors, based in Genoa, Italy, is a leading MgB2 wire supplier and was a partner in Suprapower and in an earlier U.S. Department of Energy project. The company has also contributed to InnWind and a recent French project called EolSupra20.

Of these, Suprapower most recently produced something tangible. The project, which ended in May 2017, was a €5.4 million ($6.25 million), five-year affair intended not only to design a 10-MW direct-drive superconducting turbine generator but also to build a critical part of the design—two of the 48 superconducting electromagnet coils that would make up a full rotor. The design calls for a 163-metric-ton generator, a mass reduction of 26 percent over what the thing would weigh if constructed with today’s permanent-magnet technology.

The rotor coils are made from a flattened copper wire in which an MgB2 wire has been embedded. The copper reinforces the comparatively brittle MgB2 and conducts heat away from it. For Columbus, the geometry of the coils was the difficult part, says Gianni Grasso, the company’s managing director during the project. These “racetrack” coils are roughly rectangular in shape, and the sharp corners produce stress on the wires that could crack the superconductor. “We had to develop a specific tool to do the winding,” he says.

Photo: Raphaël Pasquet/CEA Saclay/IEEE

Magnesium Diboride Mash: Filaments of the superconductor magnesium diboride are encased in ribbonlike support structures of copper and other elements. The ribbons are then carefully wound into a “racetrack” shape to form the turbine’s high-power electromagnets.

Finding a way to keep the windings at 20 K—and do that out at sea—was an even greater challenge. “All the engineering around heat extraction is feasible but complex,” says Marino. “Offshore conditions are a problem for complexity.”

Usually superconductors, such as those in MRI machines, are cooled by bathing them in a cryogenic fluid like liquid helium. But Suprapower ruled that option out. During any kind of maintenance at sea, that fluid would have to be removed to warm up the generator’s innards and then replaced. Handling such a fluid at the top of a wind-buffeted tower and hauling around the equipment needed to reliquefy the gas just didn’t seem practical.

Instead, Suprapower’s engineers chose to cool the coils by conduction. Gifford-McMahon cryocoolers would provide the cooling power to a distributed set of modular cryostats—enclosures that maintain the temperature of what’s inside them. Each superconducting coil in this modular system has its own cryostat, which was designed to keep the coil in a vacuum.

The hope, Marino says, is that the modular nature of these cryostats will make maintenance easier. In the event that it or the coil it encloses needs replacing, a technician would have to bring only that particular segment up to room temperature and then cool its replacement back down. That convenience could speed repairs, though Marino expects that maintenance would still take longer than on a conventional machine.

Though Suprapower was able to build a critical piece of a superconducting wind turbine, it didn’t answer the question of whether it, or even bigger superconducting turbines, should be built at all. That was the goal of InnWind. The €20 million ($23.2 million) project, begun in 2012, developed several designs based on a variety of new technologies, including MgB2 superconductors. It aimed to design complete 10- and 20-MW wind turbines for use in 50 meters of water at the lowest cost possible, thereby pointing the way toward the future. A funny thing happened on the way to the future, however: It got more complicated.

In the last five years, the price of the kinds of permanent magnets needed for advanced turbines has fallen by more than a factor of four, to about €25 ($29) per kilogram. Asger Bech Abrahamsen, the senior researcher at Technical University of Denmark’s wind energy department who led the drivetrain design efforts for InnWind, says, “With that kind of input price level, superconducting machines can’t compete.”

https://content.jwplatform.com/players/e913kYM4-7pFgM9ap.js

InnWind researchers sought systems that resulted in the lowest levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for the whole turbine, including the foundation, tower, and blades. LCOE is basically the price a turbine needs to get for its electricity, over its lifetime, to break even. That figure takes into account manufacture, construction, maintenance, efficiency, decommissioning, and other factors and is among the key metrics that wind farm investors use to decide what to build—and where.

In InnWind’s quest for the lowest LCOE, the fall of permanent-magnet prices forced it to reduce the amount of superconductor in its 10-MW superconducting turbine designs and to add magnetic steel to help concentrate the remaining superconductor’s magnetic field. InnWind then had to add even more steel because of an unexpected resonance in the structure. This problem resulted from the mass at the top of the tower being so light that when the 41.7-metric-ton blades swung past the tower, they strained the structure at a frequency that was too close to its natural frequency. Eventually, that strain would have shortened the substructure’s required 25-year lifetime. Also—and most unfortunately—simulations showed that the resonance was stronger the lighter the turbine generator became, explains Abrahamsen. Faced with a situation in which making the generator lighter would lead to a more costly substructure, the InnWind designers allowed the mass of the 10-MW superconducting drivetrain to balloon to 286 metric tons, compared with the 215 to 237 metric tons for scaled-up versions of permanent-magnet-based direct-drive tech.

Though InnWind’s 20-MW MgB2 design didn’t have the resonance problem, it still needed a lot of steel to make up for the design’s reduced amount of superconductor. With superconductors, the instinct is to make the lightest, smallest turbine generator possible, says Abrahamsen, but from the perspective of low LCOE, “we had to conclude that a lightweight generator as always beneficial is not quite always true.”

The price collapse of permanent magnets also opened an opportunity for a dark-horse competitor to superconductors. Called the magnetic pseudodirect drive (PDD), it’s a kind of magnetic gearing system in development at Magnomatics, based in Sheffield, England.

Illustration: James Provost

Magnetic Pseudodirect Drive: A peculiar arrangement of permanent magnets turns a wind turbine’s high torque into the quickly rotating magnetic field needed for a generator.

The system is hard to fully grasp unless you see it in motion, but here goes: A PDD is a set of three concentric cylinders. The inner and outer rings are each made up of stripes of permanent magnet with alternating polarities. The outer cylinder has many stripes, the inner just a few. The central cylinder consists of alternating stripes of steel and nonmagnetic support material. In operation, the outer ring is held stationary, while the turbine’s low-speed input from the blades spins the central steel cylinder. That cylinder manipulates the magnetic lines of force of the outer cylinder’s permanent magnets so that they form a magnetic field that rotates quickly and in the opposite direction of the steel cylinder. This field couples with the permanent magnets of the inner cylinder to produce high-speed rotation. To turn this gear into a generator, coils of copper wire are set around the outer ring, where they experience the same fast-moving magnetic field that the inner ring does. That fast-moving field induces a voltage in the coils of copper wire.

In InnWind’s analysis, this setup beat the superconducting design on efficiency. PDD “gained most by having high efficiency even at low wind speeds,” says Abrahamsen. “A superconducting machine can also reach a pretty high efficiency, but it needs a cooling system,” which is a constant drain on energy even when the wind is barely blowing, he notes. While other factors, such as construction cost, are spread over the turbine’s 25-year life, efficiency has a much more direct effect on cost.

“It doesn’t sound like much, but 2 percent more efficiency means 2 percent on LCOE,” says David Powell, principal engineer for drive technology at Magnomatics. And in the wind industry, he adds, “2 percent is a big deal.”

The PDD gets that relatively high efficiency by adopting the smaller size of geared turbines without suffering from energy losses in mechanical gears. These losses can be 1 to 2 percent per stage, and many turbines have three gear stages, explains Powell. In the PDD, however, there are no mechanical connections; the cylinders float within each other separated by an air gap, so the system doesn’t even need lubricant.

Though the main selling point in the wind industry is the PDD system’s efficiency, it is also considerably smaller and requires much less copper winding than existing technology. The 10-MW PDD design’s drivetrain mass was more than 100 metric tons lighter than the superconducting MgB2 design. And the turbine was only 6 meters in diameter versus the reference design’s 10 meters. That size difference may offer an advantage in manufacturing, Powell says, because it would give turbine makers the option of building new high-megawatt turbines in older, smaller factories.

Magnomatics plans to capitalize on this victory. But it has a lot to do to scale up to 10 MW or beyond. With conventional technology already in the water, little more than 1 MW away from that mark, “we need to get there very soon,” Powell notes. “It’s all happening for us now. We just have to catch the right people.”

Photo: Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy Systems

Docking Maneuver: Workers prepare to link the 3.6-megawatt Ecoswing superconducting generator [blue] to a machine that simulates the torque and other aspects of a wind turbine [gray].

Though a nonsuperconductor technology won InnWind on cost, that consortium’s analysis isn’t the only one around. The smaller, French project called EolSupra20 aimed straight for the 20-MW mark with its LCOE exploration and came up with very different results.

Unlike those of others, EolSupra20’s design includes MgB2 superconductors in both the rotor and the stator. “What you want for the rotor is to create a really large magnetic field,” says Loïc Quéval, assistant professor at the University of Paris-Saclay. So all you need is DC current, which in a superconductor flows without loss and generates no heat.

“The stator is something different,” he says. As the rotor’s magnetic field cuts through it, the current in the stator’s windings changes directions. Amazing as they are, superconductors do experience some loss when carrying AC current. This had two effects on the design. First, it required a different form of superconducting wire to do the job. An alternating magnetic field causes loss-inducing loops of current in the surface of a superconductor. Unfortunately, superconductors—especially the high-temperature variety—are usually produced as tapes rather than wire, so they have lots of surface area on which these loops can form. “It’s almost impossible to produce a low-AC-loss, high-temperature superconductor,” says Columbus Superconductor’s Grasso, whose company also produces such materials. “But it’s possible with MgB2.”

Instead of the tape, Columbus has been working on an MgB2 format with a smaller surface area. It’s producing wires in which many round filaments of MgB2 with diameters of 10 micrometers are embedded. These filaments have too small a surface area for many current loops to form, explains Grasso. In one format, 91 such filaments are embedded in a copper-and-nickel hexagonal wire. These wires would then be packed into a flat format called a Rutherford cable, although this has yet to be achieved at useful lengths.

The second consequence of having a superconducting stator is that it must be cooled, and those cooling demands will be steeper than what the rotor needs. The EolSupra20 design uses a set of cryocoolers to keep the rotor at 10 K, a temperature that maximizes the superconductor’s current-carrying ability. The stator is on a separate group of cryocoolers set to keep it at 20 K, because it would take too much power to maintain a lower temperature than that.

To meet these needs, the design calls for no less than 85 cryocoolers in total. “We put cryocoolers everywhere,” says Quéval. Sourcing powerful cryocoolers was a problem, so EolSupra20 used multiple smaller ones. The Sumitomo Heavy Industries RDK-0408S2 two-stage cryocoolers that EolSupra20 used in its design weigh just 18 kilograms and can pull mere watts to tens of watts of heat from the coils—but at the expense of about 100 times that amount of energy. “Right now, efficiency is really low,” Quéval says.

Photo: Jeumont Electric

Precision Manufacturing: Workers build the stator of Ecoswing’s onshore generator.

EolSupra20’s superconducting design did manage to beat its version of a turbine built using conventional technology with respect to LCOE. It chimed in at €119 per megawatt-hour ($140/MWh) compared with €129/MWh ($152/MWh) for the conventional turbine. The difference, according to Quéval and the EolSupra20 team, was the substantially lower generator mass enabled by the superconductors. At 178 metric tons, the fully superconducting generator was barely more than one-third of the conventional generator’s bulk.

EolSupra20’s LCOE is quite noticeably higher than that of InnWind’s reference 20-MW turbine, which is €93 ($108)/MWh. Quéval points out that LCOE is, to some extent, a local affair. InnWind’s aim was the deeper waters of the North Sea, where competition is fierce and grid connections are planned, if not yet plentiful. Future wind farms have already been promised there at less than €100 ($116)/MWh. The Atlantic coast of France is a different environment, both economically and geographically. France currently has no offshore wind farms, despite having a long, windy coast. But since 2012, the country has awarded tenders for 3,000 MW of offshore capacity, at the lofty price of about €200 ($232)/MWh. That number could change—and soon. Seeing the unexpectedly rapid fall in prices in the North Sea, the French government began signaling a desire to renegotiate in March.

So, given the mixed signals, which technology will rule the sea in the future, superconductors or PDDs? InnWind’s is surely a comprehensive study, with five years of work by some 27 industrial and research entities. That said, even its reports admit to a lot of uncertainty. And InnWind judges both drivetrain technologies at the same level of readiness: “Test in laboratory.”

A better question, and one that InnWind tries to answer, might be: What would it take for superconductors to match the PDD drive? According to Abrahamsen and his InnWind colleagues, a price reduction in MgB2 similar to what happened to permanent magnets would go a long way. If MgB2 tape cost €1 ($1.16) per meter instead of €4 ($4.64), a 20-MW design could add much more of it, making stronger magnets that need less cumbersome amounts of magnetic steel. But such a design would also require a tenfold reduction in the estimated cost of cryostats and cooling equipment to make it competitive. It’s an open question whether the commercialization of massive superconducting wind turbines would create enough demand to lead to prices that low in either technology.

But price isn’t the only thing that could change. The critical temperature at which a superconductor starts superconducting is what most people focus on, but it’s really a triumvirate of conditions that leads to superconductivity. There is a critical current density above which the phenomenon collapses, as well as a maximum magnetic field. A fourfold boost in the critical current value, say, would have a similar effect as a price reduction, because you could produce a stronger field with one-quarter the amount of superconductor. Even better, it would allow for different drivetrain designs. “The better the wire, the more simple the rest of the system is,” sums up Suprapower’s Marino.

Photo: Envision

Future Home: By March 2019, Ecoswing’s 3.6-megawatt superconducting generator will be installed in a turbine in Denmark like this one.

It’s also possible that these LCOE analyses for extremely massive turbines are all a bit premature. Another EU project called EcoSwing aims to prove that a superconducting generator can compete at more modest scales, and its engineers have nearly done it. By March 2019, the €14 million ($16.3 million) project plans to have installed such a superconducting generator inside a modified 3.6-MW turbine on land, where the installation and maintenance are easier.

Unlike the high-megawatt offshore projects, EcoSwing is aiming for the middle of today’s onshore market. Superconductor technology has let the designers double the turbine’s power density, allowing for a 40 percent smaller turbine generator and a 15 percent cost reduction over those of market leaders, says Jürgen Kellers, EcoSwing’s director at ECO 5, an engineering company that’s one of the nine contributors to the project.

Apart from its size, the EcoSwing generator differs from the InnWind and other offshore designs in that EcoSwing uses a single large cryostat instead of many modular ones. It also relies on a high-temperature superconductor—yttrium barium copper oxide—instead of MgB2. The company chose the former despite the cost, because it’s easier to cool YBCO. “You might say MgB2 is already at a cost that YBCO wants to be in the future,” says Kellers. “On the other hand, cryogenics is not as straightforward and rugged as with YBCO.”

On 22 May, the consortium completed testing of its generator at the Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy Systems’ DynaLab, a facility that can provide the torque and other conditions to test full-scale wind turbine generators. It’s the first superconducting machine ever to undergo such tests.

From the DynaLab, the machine will stop at the University of Twente, in the Netherlands, for some final assembly and then move by ship to Denmark for installation in the turbine. “Then we have the lift and see how the EcoSwing generator performs in the harsh conditions of the North Sea coast,” says Kellers.

Magnomatics isn’t too far behind with its magnetic pseudodirect drive. Its next stage is a 500-kilowatt generator, which it will test on a dynamometer at the National Renewable Energy Centre, in Blyth, England. From there “we’re going to try to put a 2- to 3-MW machine in a nacelle and get real data,” says Magnomatics’ Powell.

The battle for future designs may have gone to the PDD, but the fight to prove whether either technology really works is just beginning.

This article appears in the August 2018 print issue as “Rough Seas for the Superconducting Wind Turbine.”

The Troubled Quest for the Superconducting Wind Turbine syndicated from https://jiohowweb.blogspot.com

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